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Freitag, 17.11.2006

Prosody - harmonic

Harmonic

acoustics and telecommunication, the harmonic of a wave is a component frequency of the signal that is an integer multiple of the fundamental frequency. For a sine wave, it is an integer multiple of the frequency of the wave. For example, if the frequency is f, the harmonics have frequency 2f, 3f, 4f, etc.musical terms, harmonics are component pitches ("partials", "partial waves" or "constituent frequencies") of a harmonic tone which sound at whole number multiples above the named note being played on a musical instrument. Non-integer multiples are called inharmonic overtones. It is the amplitude and placement of harmonics (and partials in general) which give different instruments different timbre (despite not usually being detected separately by the untrained human ear), and the separate trajectories of the overtones of two instruments playing in unison is what allows one to perceive them as separate. Bells have more clearly perceptible partials than most instruments. Antique singing bowls are well known for their unique quality of producing multiple harmonic overtones.harmonic series:

 

1f

 

440 Hz

Fundamental frequency

 

first harmonic

2f

880 Hz

first overtone

second harmonic

3f

1320 Hz

second overtone

third harmonic

4f

1760 Hz

third overtone

fourth harmonic

Amplitudes are varying.

In many

Harmonics may be used as the basis of

The

musical instruments, it is possible to play the upper harmonics without the fundamental note being present. In a simple case (e.g. recorder) this has the effect of making the note go up in pitch by an octave; but in more complex cases many other pitch variations are obtained. In some cases it also changes the timbre of the note. This is part of the normal method of obtaining higher notes in wind instruments, where it is called overblowing. The extended technique of playing multiphonics also produces harmonics. On string instruments it is possible to produce very pure sounding notes, called harmonics by string players, which have an eerie quality, as well as being high in pitch which are located on the nodes of the strings. Harmonics may be used to check at a unison the tuning of strings which are not tuned to the unison. For example, lightly fingering the node found half way down the highest string of a cello produces the same pitch as lightly fingering the node 1/3 of the way down the second highest string. For the human voice see Overtone singing, which uses harmonics.just intonation systems or considered as the basis of all just intonation systems. Composer Arnold Dreyblatt is able to bring out different harmonics on the single string of his modified double bass by slightly altering his unique bowing technique halfway between hitting and bowing the strings.fundamental frequency is the reciprocal of the period of the periodic phenomenon.

(From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia)

In

In

 

Sample for a

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Prosody - fundamental frequency

Fundamental frequency

harmonic series.frequency (also called a fundamental) of a periodic signal is the inverse of the pitch period length. The pitch period is, in turn, the smallest repeating unit of a signal. One pitch period thus describes the periodic signal completely. The significance of defining the pitch period as the smallest repeating unit can be appreciated by noting that two or more concatenated pitch periods form a repeating pattern in the signal. However, the concatenated signal unit obviously contains redundant information.root note, or lowest note or pitch in a chord or sonority when that chord is in root position or normal form.sinusoids (for example, fourier series), the fundamental frequency is the lowest frequency sinusoidal in the sum.

(From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia)

The fundamental tone, often referred to simply as the fundamental, is the lowest frequency in a

The fundamental

A 'fundamental bass' is the

In terms of a superposition of

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Prosody - Spectogram

Spectrogram

frequency spectrum of windowed frames of a compound signal. It is a three-dimensional plot of the energy of the frequency content of a signal as it changes over time.phonetic sounds, to analyse the cries of animals, and in the fields of music, sonar/radar, speech processing, etc. A spectrogram can also be called a spectral waterfall, sonogram, voiceprint, or voicegram. The instrument that generates a spectrogram is called a sonograph.

(From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia)

The spectrogram is the result of calculating the

Spectrograms are used to identify

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Prosody- formant

1. Formant

frequency spectrum which results from the resonant frequencies of any acoustical system. It is most commonly invoked in phonetics or acoustics involving the resonant frequencies of vocal tracts or musical instruments. However, it is equally valid to talk about the formant frequencies of the air in a room, as exploited, for example, by Alvin Lucier in his piece I am sitting in a room.speech and of singing. By definition, the information that humans require to distinguish between vowels can be represented purely quantitatively by the frequency content of the vowel sounds. Formants are the characteristic partials that identify vowels to the listener. Most of these formants are produced by tube and chamber resonance, but a few whistle tones derive from periodic collapse of Venturi effect low-pressure zones. The formant with the lowest frequency is called f1, the second f2, and the third f3. Most often the two first formats, f1 and f2, are enough to disambiguate the vowel. These two formants are primarily determined by the position of the tongue. f1 has a higher frequency when the tongue is lowered, and f2 has a higher frequency when the tongue is forward. Generally, formants move about in a range of approximately 1000 Hz for a male adult, with 1000 Hz per formant. Vowels will almost always have four or more distinguishable formants; sometimes there are more than six.English "r" sound (IPA [ɹ]) is distinguished by virtue of a very low third formant (well below 2000 Hz).

If the fundamental frequency of the underlying vibration is higher than the formant frequency of the system, then the character of the sound imparted by the formant frequencies will be mostly lost. This is most apparent in the example of

Control of formants is an essential component of the vocal technique known as

Plosives (and, to some degree, fricatives) modify the placement of formants in the surrounding vowels. Bilabial sounds (such as 'b' and 'p' as in "ball" or "sap") cause a lowering of the formants; velar sounds ('k' and 'g' in English) almost always show f2 and f3 coming together in a 'velar pinch' before the velar and separating from the same 'pinch' as the velar is released; alveolar sounds (English 't' and 'd') cause less systematic changes in neighboring vowel formants, depending partially on exactly which vowel is present. The time-course of these changes in vowel formant frequencies are referred to as 'formant transitions'.soprano opera singers, who sing high enough that their vowels become very hard to distinguish.overtone singing, in which the performer sings a low fundamental tone, and creates sharp resonances to select upper harmonics, giving the impression of several tones being sung at once.

 

Spectrograms are used to visualise formants.

2. Formant

    • Formants can be seen very clearly in a wideband spectrogram, where they are displayed as dark bands. The darker a formant is reproduced in the spectrogram, the stronger it is (the more energy there is there, or the more audible it is):

  • A formant is a concentration of acoustic energy around a particular frequency in the speech wave. There are several formants, each at a different frequency, roughly one in each 1000Hz band. Or, to put it differently, formants occur at roughly 1000Hz intervals. Each formant corresponds to a resonance in the vocal tract.

    • The arrows at F on this spectrogram point out six instances of the lowest formant. The next formant occurs just above these, between 1 and 2 Khz. Then the next is just above that, between 2 and 3kHz.. And so on.
    • When you look at a spectrogram, like this example, you will see formants everywhere, in both vowels and consonants. To understand why, you must recall the source-filter theory of speech production. The vocal tract filters a source sound (e.g. periodic voice vibrations or aperiodic hissing) and the result of the filtering is the sound you can hear and record outside the lips and show on a spectrogram. Formants occur, and are seen on spectrograms, around frequencies that correspond to the resonances of the vocal tract. But there is a difference between oral vowels on the one hand, and consonants and nasal vowels on the other. For consonants, there are also antiresonances in the vocal tract at one or more frequencies due to oral constrictions. An antiresonce is the opposite of a resonance, such that the impedence is relatively high rather than low. Consequently, they attenuate or eliminate formants at or near these frequencies, so that they appear weakened or are missing altogether when you look at spectrograms. That is why, for example, it is difficult to see formants below 3000-4000Hz for the two instances of [s] in the spectrogram above.
    • In addition, for nasal consonants and nasal vowels, the vocal tract divides into a nasal branch and an oral branch, and interference between these branches produces more antiresonances. Furthermore, nasal consonants and nasal vowels can exhibit additional formants, nasal formants, arising from resonance within the nasal branch. Consequently, nasal vowels may show one or more additional formants due to nasal resonance, while one or more oral formants may be weakened or missing due to nasal antiresonance.
      • By convention, oral formants are numbered consecutively upwards from the lowest frequency.

      (http://www.ling.lu.se/persons/Sidney/praate/whatform.html)

      (From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia)

      A formant is a peak in an acoustic

      Formants are the distinguishing or meaningful frequency components of human

      Nasals usually have an additional formant around 2500 Hz. The liquid [l] usually has an extra formant at 1500 Hz, while the

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      Mittwoch, 15.11.2006

      Prosody - Accent

      Accent (linguistics) From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia [edit] General discussion When a standard language and pronunciation are defined by a group, an accent may be any pronunciation that deviates from that standard. However, accent is a relative concept, and it is meaningful only with respect to a specified pronunciation reference. For example, people from New York City may speak with an accent in the perception of people from Los Angeles, but people from Los Angeles may also speak with an accent in the perception of New Yorkers. Americans hear British people speaking with an accent and vice versa. Groups sharing an identifiable accent may be defined by any of a wide variety of common traits. An accent may be associated with the region in which its speakers reside (a geographical accent), the socio-economic status of its speakers, their ethnicity, their caste or social class, their first language (when the language in which the accent is heard is not their native language), and so on. Accent should not be confused with dialect (q.v.), which is a variety of language differing in vocabulary and grammar as well as pronunciation. Dialects are usually spoken by a group united by geography or class. In some societies, a ?standard? accent is defined that carries particular prestige in that society; it may or may not be an accent that is widely spoken within the society, and sometimes its prestige derives solely from its association with a specific real or theoretical group within the society. In the United Kingdom, for example, the so-called Received Pronunciation of English is established as the most prestigious accent, although only about three percent of people within the UK actually speak with that accent. Often the standard accent is simply the most widely spoken accent in a group?that is, the one that is least likely to be perceived as ?different.? An example is General American English, an accent (defined somewhat less rigidly than RP) that is spoken to a greater or lesser extent by many native speakers of English in North America. [edit] Foreign accent A foreign accent is one that marks someone as a non-native speaker of a language. It arises when the phonology of one language, typically the person's native language, influences his pronunciation of a second language. This usually occurs when the second language is acquired after the age of 12. The perception of a foreign accent by native speakers may carry with it positive or negative connotations. When the connotations are negative, non-native speakers with a foreign accent may endeavor to suppress and eliminate it. However, foreign accents are notoriously difficult to eliminate without very extensive training, and there is much individual variation in the ability to eliminate a foreign accent. Many speakers choose to live with their foreign accents as long as these are not heavy enough to interfere with communication (that is, as long as their accents leave the phonemes of a language clearly distinguishable to native speakers).
      KAT109VZLA um 22:12 | | TrackBack (0) | Kommentieren | Artikel versenden

      Prosody - Definition

      Definition 1: Prosody

      linguistics, prosody is the intonation, rhythm, and lexical stress in speech. The prosodic features of a unit of speech, whether a syllable, word, phrase, or clause, are called suprasegmental features because they affect all the segments of the unit. These features are manifested, among other things, as syllable length, tone, and stress.linguistics, intonation is the variation of pitch when speaking. Intonation and stress are two main elements of linguistic prosody.Greek ῥυθμός = 'flow', or in Modern Greek, 'style') is the variation of the accentuation of sounds or other events over time. "Rhythm involves patterns of duration that are phenomenally present in the music" with duration perceived by interonset interval (London 2004, p.4). When governed by rule, it is called meter. It is inherent in any time-dependent medium, but it is most associated with music, dance, and the majority of poetry. The study of rhythm, stress, and pitch in speech is called prosody; it is a topic in linguistics. All musicians, instrumentalists and vocalists, work with rhythm, but it is often considered the primary domain of drummers and percussionists.linguistics, stress is the relative emphasis given to certain syllables in a word. voice through the use of the vocal cords and vocal apparatus or other means, such as sign language, to create linguistic acts in the form of language that communicate information from an initiator to a recipient. frequency of a musical note or sound. While the actual fundamental frequency can be determined through physical measurement, it may differ from the perceived pitch because of overtones, or partials, in the sound. The human auditory perception system may also have trouble distinguishing pitch differences between notes under certain circumstances.

      In

      Intonation:

      In

      Rhythm

      Stress:

      In

      Speech

      Pitch

      Source: http://en.wikipedia.org (19.10.2006)

       

      Def 2.: Prosody

      What is prosody?

      Source: http://www.btinternet.com/~eptotd/pow/powin.htm (19.10.2006)

       

      Prosody and intonation cover much the same ground; as an overall term is needed, prosody will be used. Technical terms are given in bold and explained in the surrounding text.

      We distinguish between prosodic functions (what the prosody does) and prosodic forms (what the prosody is).

      The functions of prosody are many and fascinating. Where speech-sounds such as vowels and consonants function mainly to provide an indication of the identity of words and the regional variety of the speaker, prosody can indicate syntax, turn-taking in conversational interactions, types of utterance such as questions and statements, and people's attitudes and feelings. They can also indicate word-identity (although only occasionally, in English). We will treat a few well-defined prosodic functions such as chunking and focus.

      The forms (or elements) of prosody are derived from the acoustic characteristics of speech. They include the pitch or frequency, the length or duration, and the loudness or intensity. All these forms are present in varying quantities in every spoken utterance. The varying quantities help determine the function to which listeners orient themselves in interpreting the utterance. The screens in the tutorials on prosodic forms are designed to attune your ear to these varying degrees of presence.       is the perceived fundamental       can be described as an act of producing       (
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      questions for presentation on malayalam

      Introduction:

      Where is it spoken?

      How many speakers does Malayalam have?

      Which language family does it belong to?

      Is it a tone language?

      What?s the orthography like?

      Morphology:

      Prosody and stresses

      Morpheme/allomorph

      Phonology and Phonetics:

      Vowels

      Consonants

      Place of articulation

      Sounds

      Phoneme/allophone

       

      Word formation:

      Derivation

      Inflection

      Consonant vowel formation in a word

      Sentence structure :

      Simple sentences

      Subordinate clauses

      Coordinate clauses

      Prosody

      Word order in a sentence

      KAT109VZLA um 22:04 | | TrackBack (0) | Kommentieren | Artikel versenden

      derivation english and german

      Derivation (linguistics)

      From Wikipedia

      In linguistics, derivation is the process of creating new lexemes from other lexemes, for example, by adding a derivational affix. It is a kind of word formation.

      Derivational affixes usually apply to words of one syntactic category and change them into words of another syntactic category. For example, the English derivational suffix -ly changes adjectives into adverbs (slow → slowly).

      Some examples of English derivational suffixes:

      • adjective-to-noun: -ness (slow → slowness)
      • adjective-to-verb: -ize (modern → modernize)
      • noun-to-adjective: -al (recreation → recreational)
      • noun-to-verb: -fy (glory → glorify)
      • verb-to-adjective: -able (drink → drinkable)
      • verb-to-noun: -ance (deliver → deliverance)

      Derivational affixes do not necessarily modify the syntactic category; they can also modify the meaning. For example, the derivational prefix un- applies to adjectives (healthy → unhealthy), some verbs (do → undo), but rarely nouns. In many cases, derivational affixes change both the syntactic category and the meaning: modern → modernize ("to make modern").

      Note that derivational affixes are bound morphemes. In that, derivation differs from compounding, by which free morphemes are combined (lawsuit, Latin professor). It also differs from inflection in that inflection does not change a word's syntactic category and creates not new lexemes but new word forms (table → tables; open → opened).

      Derivation may occur without any change of form, for example telephone (noun) and to telephone. This is known as conversion. Some linguists consider that when a word's syntactic category is changed without any change of form, a null morpheme is being affixed.

       

      Their formation is independent of the syntax of the clause or sentence in which they occur. If you find this puzzling, two things may help:

      • Inflectional morphology is much easier to recognize. A relatively small number of types of inflection (showing number or tense, say) covers most cases.
      • All
        •  compound and most complex words show derivational morphology. If a complex word does not show inflection it will show derivation.

       

      This table illustrates how derivation can occur:

      Derivational morphology in complex words

      Prefix

      Base of Word

      Suffix

      Complex Word

      Bi

      cycl(e)

      ing

      Bicycling

      Dis

      grace

      ful

      Disgraceful

      In

      tolera(te)

      able

      Intolerable

      Re

      vision

      ist

      Revisionist

      Un, co

      operat(e)

      ive, ly

      Uncooperatively

      Un

      likely (y

             becomes i)

      hood

      Unlikelihood

      Four kinds of word-formation

      Prefixation

      (derivational)

      Suffixation

      (derivational)

      Compounding

      (derivational)

      Conversion

      (

      not derivational)

      Affix placed before base of word, e.g. disobey

      Affix placed after base of word, e.g. kindness

      Two base forms are added together, e.g. blackbird

      Word changes class, without any change of form, e.g. (the) pet (n) becomes (to) pet (vb.)

      http://www.universalteacher.org.uk/lang/engstruct.htm#morph

      Language Universals:

      German: noun ->adjective (Wert->wertvoll)

      English: noun -> adjective (success-> successful)

      German: noun->verb (Konstrukt->konstruieren, Modell->modellieren)

      English: noun->verb (glory->glorify)

      German: verb->adjective (essen->essbar)

      English: verb->adjective (drink->drinkable)

      German: verb->noun (liefern->Lieferung)

      English: (deliver->delieverance)

      German: noun->adjective (Sonne->sonnig)

      English: (sun->sunny)

       

       

      German Affixes:

      Prefixes

      Suffixes

      Un- (kompliziert- unkompliziert)

      -bar (Dank- dankbar)

      De- (motivieren- demotivieren)

      -heit (schön- Schönheit)

      ab- (legen)

      -keit (aufmerksam- Aufmerksamkeit)

      an- (legen)

      -ig (Lust- lustig)

      auf- (legen)

      -ung (Tag- Tagung)

      be- (legen)

      -ieren (Investition- investieren)

      bei- (legen)

      -tion (konzentrieren- Konzentration)

      ein- (legen)

      -voll (Vorwurf- vorwurfsvoll)

      ent- (legen)

      Deminutive suffixes:

      -lein (Männlein)

      -chen (Männchen)

      -erl (Busserl)

      -le (Spätzle)

      -li (Verhüterli)

      -erl (-al) (Lüngerl)

      -ei (Mankei)

      -el (Mäusel)

      -la und -le (Kließla, Schäufele)

      -tje, -je (Manntje, Meisje)

      -ke, -ken (Manneke, Mäken)

      er- (legen)

      Adjektivierungssuffixe

      -lich (männlich- Mann, weiblich- Weib, häuslich- Haus),

      -isch (zänkisch- Zank, schwäbisch- Schwabe, Schwaben, hessisch- Hesse, Hessen, norwegisch- Norweger, Norwegen)

      -ig (rührig- (sich) rühren, geschäftig- Geschäft)

      ge- (legen)

      Gender determining suffixes:

      Female:

      -in (Hündin, Schaffnerin, Köchin)

      -sche und -sch (Kööksche, Börgermeestersch)

      hin- (legen)

      Substantivierungssuffixe

      -heit (gemein- Gemeinheit)

      -keit (heiter- Heiterkeit)

      -ung (hoffen- Hoffnung)

      -nis (Finsternis- finster)

      nach- (legen)

      Kollektivsuffix, das u.a. Substantive aus Verben bildet:

      -de (freuen- Freude, bauen- Gebäude)

      nieder- (legen)

      Suffixes of technical terms:

      Eg.

      Greek (-logie, -gramm, -meter) and/ or Latin suffixes (-akt, -sonant)

      über- (legen)

      		 

      um- (legen)

      		 

      un- (legen)

      		 

      unter- (legen)

      		 

      ver- (legen)

      		 

      vor- (legen)

      		 

      zer- (legen)

      		 

      zu- (legen)

      		 
        

       

       

      Important prefixes in German demonstrated with the verb "legen":

      Präfix

      Verb

       

      ab-

      legen

       

      an-

      legen

       

      auf-

      legen

       

      be-

      legen

       

      bei-

      legen

       

      ein-

      legen

       

      ent-

      legen

       

      Präfix

      Verb

       

      er-

      legen

       

      ge-

      legen

       

      hin-

      legen

       

      nach-

      legen

       

      nieder-

      legen

       

      über-

      legen

       

      um-

      legen

       

      Präfix

      Verb

       

      un-

      (ge-)legen

       

      unter-

      Legen

       

      ver-

      Legen

       

      vor-

      Legen

       

      zer-

      Legen

       

      zu-

      Legen

       

       

       

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      derivation english

      Prefix

      Suffix

       

      En- (able-enable)

      -ness (lonely-loneliness)

       

      Be- (loved-beloved)

      -ize (character-characterize)

       

      Em- (brace-embrace)

      -al (recreation-recreational)

       

      In- (tolerant-intolerant)

      -fy (glory-glorify)

       

      Dis- (like-dislike)

      -able (drink-drinkable)

       

      Re- (vision-revision)

      -ance (ignorant-ignorance)

       

      Un- (faithful-unfaithful)

      -ate (compensation-compensate)

       

      Co- (operate-cooperation)

      -en (fast-fasten)

       

      Im- (possible-impossible)

      -tion (glory-glorification)

       

      For- (give-forgive)

      -ist (revision-revisionist)

       

       

      -ive (cooperate-cooperative)

      KAT109VZLA um 22:01 | | TrackBack (0) | 2 Kommentare | Artikel versenden

      Derivation

      Derivation (linguistics)

      From Wikipedia

      In linguistics, derivation is the process of creating new lexemes from other lexemes, for example, by adding a derivational affix. It is a kind of word formation.

      Derivational affixes usually apply to words of one syntactic category and change them into words of another syntactic category. For example, the English derivational suffix -ly changes adjectives into adverbs (slow → slowly).

      Some examples of English derivational suffixes:

      • adjective-to-noun: -ness (slow → slowness)
      • adjective-to-verb: -ize (modern → modernize)
      • noun-to-adjective: -al (recreation → recreational)
      • noun-to-verb: -fy (glory → glorify)
      • verb-to-adjective: -able (drink → drinkable)
      • verb-to-noun: -ance (deliver → deliverance)

      Derivational affixes do not necessarily modify the syntactic category; they can also modify the meaning. For example, the derivational prefix un- applies to adjectives (healthy → unhealthy), some verbs (do → undo), but rarely nouns. In many cases, derivational affixes change both the syntactic category and the meaning: modern → modernize ("to make modern").

      Note that derivational affixes are bound morphemes. In that, derivation differs from compounding, by which free morphemes are combined (lawsuit, Latin professor). It also differs from inflection in that inflection does not change a word's syntactic category and creates not new lexemes but new word forms (table → tables; open → opened).

      Derivation may occur without any change of form, for example telephone (noun) and to telephone. This is known as conversion. Some linguists consider that when a word's syntactic category is changed without any change of form, a null morpheme is being affixed.

       

      Their formation is independent of the syntax of the clause or sentence in which they occur. If you find this puzzling, two things may help:

      • Inflectional morphology is much easier to recognize. A relatively small number of types of inflection (showing number or tense, say) covers most cases.
      • All
        •  compound and most complex words show derivational morphology. If a complex word does not show inflection it will show derivation.

       

      This table illustrates how derivation can occur:

      Derivational morphology in complex words

      Prefix

      Base of Word

      Suffix

      Complex Word

      Bi

      cycl(e)

      ing

      Bicycling

      Dis

      grace

      ful

      Disgraceful

      In

      tolera(te)

      able

      Intolerable

      Re

      vision

      ist

      Revisionist

      Un, co

      operat(e)

      ive, ly

      Uncooperatively

      Un

      likely (y

             becomes i)

      hood

      Unlikelihood

      Four kinds of word-formation

      Prefixation

      (derivational)

      Suffixation

      (derivational)

      Compounding

      (derivational)

      Conversion

      (

      not derivational)

      Affix placed before base of word, e.g. disobey

      Affix placed after base of word, e.g. kindness

      Two base forms are added together, e.g. blackbird

      Word changes class, without any change of form, e.g. (the) pet (n) becomes (to) pet (vb.)

      http://www.universalteacher.org.uk/lang/engstruct.htm#morph

      Language Universals:

      German: noun ->adjective (Wert->wertvoll)

      English: noun -> adjective (success-> successful)

      German: noun->verb (Konstrukt->konstruieren, Modell->modellieren)

      English: noun->verb (glory->glorify)

      German: verb->adjective (essen->essbar)

      English: verb->adjective (drink->drinkable)

      German: verb->noun (liefern->Lieferung)

      English: (deliver->delieverance)

      German: noun->adjective (Sonne->sonnig)

      English: (sun->sunny)

       

       

      German Affixes:

       

      Prefixes

      Suffixes

      Un-

      -bar

       

      -heit

       

      -keit

       

      -ig

       

      -ung

       

      -ieren

       

      -tion

       

      -voll

        
        
        
        
        
        
      Weiterlesen
      KAT109VZLA um 21:54 | | TrackBack (0) | Kommentieren | Artikel versenden
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